Publications

Background: Competitive swimming is a sport that places a high level of repetitive load on the shoulder complex and requires intensive use of upper extremity movements. Different swimming strokes may demonstrate distinct differences in shoulder joint biomechanics and muscle activation patterns, which may lead to stroke-specific adaptations in shoulder joint range of motion and the neuromechanical properties of muscles. However, studies examining shoulder joint range of motion together with the biomechanical properties of shoulder girdle muscles assessed by myotonometry according to swimming strokes in young swimmers are limited. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the biomechanical properties of shoulder girdle muscles and shoulder joint range of motion differ according to swimming stroke in competitive youth swimmers.

Methods: A total of 32 competitive swimmers (14 females, 18 males) were included in this cross-sectional and comparative study. Participants were divided into four groups according to their dominant swimming stroke: freestyle (n = 8), breaststroke (n = 9), backstroke (n = 8), and butterfly (n = 7). Shoulder joint range of motion (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal rotation, and external rotation) was assessed bilaterally using a standard goniometric method. The biomechanical properties of shoulder girdle muscles were measured using the MyotonPRO device, and oscillation frequency (muscle tone), dynamic stiffness, logarithmic decrement, relaxation time, and creep parameters were recorded. Differences in shoulder joint range of motion were analyzed using the Kruskal–Wallis test. In the evaluation of muscle biomechanical properties, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was applied while controlling for age, height, body mass, and training experience as covariates.

Results: No differences were found among swimming strokes in shoulder flexion, extension, abduction, internal rotation, and external rotation range of motion (p > 0.05). In contrast, shoulder adduction range of motion differed significantly according to swimming stroke on both sides (right p = 0.003; left p = 0.008). Freestyle swimmers demonstrated lower adduction angles, whereas butterfly and backstroke swimmers exhibited higher values. Myotonometric assessment showed no stroke-related differences in oscillation frequency, muscle stiffness, relaxation time, or creep parameters (p > 0.05). However, a stroke-related difference was observed in the decrement value of the anterior deltoid muscle (p = 0.002), with freestyle swimmers demonstrating lower decrement values compared with some other stroke groups.

Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that shoulder joint range of motion in competitive youth swimmers is largely independent of swimming stroke, although shoulder adduction range of motion may exhibit stroke-specific differences. In addition, while most neuromechanical properties of shoulder girdle muscles appear to be independent of swimming stroke, the elastic properties of the anterior deltoid muscle may be related to stroke mechanics. These findings provide important information for the evaluation of stroke-specific biomechanical adaptations in swimmers, performance analysis, and the planning of training programs aimed at preventing shoulder injuries.

Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT07425873, registered on 27/01/2026.

Keywords: shoulder girdle, shoulder range of motion, muscle mechanical properties, biomechanics, swimmers

In young competitive swimmers, shoulder joint range of motion and neuromechanical properties of the shoulder girdle muscles were largely comparable across the four competitive strokes, with two stroke-sensitive exceptions: shoulder adduction ROM (lowest in freestyle, highest in butterfly and backstroke) and the logarithmic decrement of the anterior deltoid (lower in freestyle than backstroke and butterfly). These findings suggest that most shoulder adaptations reflect the general demands of high-volume swim training, while adduction mobility and anterior deltoid elastic behavior may serve as stroke-specific biomechanical indicators relevant to performance evaluation and shoulder injury prevention. Longitudinal studies with larger, multi-club samples are warranted to confirm and extend these observations.